Analysis and Design of Shallow and Deep Foundations

Analysis and Design of Shallow and Deep Foundations

Advances in foundation engineering have been rapid in recent years. Of note
are the maturity of the concepts of soil–structure interaction, the development
of computer codes to deal with advanced topics, the advent of new methods
for the support of structures, and the proliferation of technical publications
and conferences that present a variety of useful information on the design and
performance of foundations. This book takes advantage of these advances by
presenting methods of analysis while being careful to emphasize standard
methods such as site visits and the role of engineering geology.
The goals of the engineer in the design of foundations are to achieve a
system that will perform according to stipulated criteria, can be constructed
by established methods, is capable of being inspected, and can be built at a
reasonable cost.

Builders have realized the need for stable foundations since structures began
rising above the ground. Builders in the time of the Greeks and the Romans
certainly understood the need for an adequate foundation because many of
their structures have remained unyielding for centuries. Portions of Roman
aqueducts that carried water by gravity over large distances remain today. The
Romans used stone blocks to create arched structures many meters in height
that continue to stand without obvious settlement. The beautiful Pantheon,
with a dome that rises 142 ft above the floor, remains steady as a tribute to
builders in the time of Agrippa and Hadrian. The Colosseum in Rome, the
massive buildings at Baalbek, and the Parthenon in Athens are ancient structures
that would be unchanged today except for vandalism or possibly
earthquakes.

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Railway Geotechnics

Railway Geotechnics

Railway Geotechnics is written by four colleagues who studied at the
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, in an academic program advised by
Professor Ernest T. Selig. Our collective time at the university spanned over
a decade, during which we were individually inspired by Professor Selig to
work on and further advance the subject of railway geotechnology, which
he pioneered and developed into a rigorous field of study. Since graduation,
the aggregate of our professional experience includes railway operations,
consulting, research, and education.
The field of railway geotechnology was in its infancy when we were in
our early careers. Because the engineering behavior of track substructure
was not well understood up to that point, perspectives on the causes and
cures of substructure instability were often informed by anecdote rather
than by verifiable fact. Mystique surrounded the subject in the absence of
critical thinking, often resulting in costly applications of remedial methods
that did not address the root causes of track substructure problems.

Advancing the field of railway geotechnology by the writing of this book
is a natural step for each of us in our careers. The book continues the work
Track Geotechnology and Substructure Management by Selig and Waters
(1994) and provides an update to this field of study so that current railway
engineers and managers have easier access to new and emerging best practices.

During years of writing and discussions, we each had moments that chal-
lenged some of our beliefs while we debated the merits of emerging tech-
nology and practices.The goal of this book is to provide a better understanding track substructure
in order to enable more effective design, construction, maintenance, and

management of railway track so as to ensure the vitality of rail transporta-
tion. We hope that this work will prove useful to current railway engineers

and managers as well as college students pursuing careers in the field of rail-
way engineering.

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FOUNDATION DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

FOUNDATION DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

The purpose of this document is to give guidance for the design and construction of
foundations in Hong Kong. It is aimed at professionals and supervisory personnel involved
in the design and construction of foundations. The document has been prepared on the
assumption that the reader has some general knowledge of foundations.
Foundations can be classified as shallow and deep foundations, depending on the
depth of load-transfer from the structure to the ground. The definition of shallow foundations
varies in different publications. BS 8004 (BSI, 1986) adopts an arbitrary embedment depth
of 3 m as a way to define shallow foundations. In the context of this document, a shallow
foundation is taken as one in which the depth to the bottom of the foundation is less than or
equal to its least dimension (Terzaghi et al, 1996). Deep foundations usually refer to piles
installed at depths and are :

(a) pre-manufactured and inserted into the ground by driving,
jacking or other methods, or
(b) cast-in-place in a shaft formed in the ground by boring or
excavation.

A thorough understanding on the ground conditions of a site is a pre-requisite to the
success of a foundation project. The overall objective of a site investigation for foundation
design is to determine the site constraints, geological profile and the properties of the various
strata. The geological sequence can be established by sinking boreholes from which soil and
rock samples are retrieved for identification and testing. Insitu tests may also be carried out
to determine the mass properties of the ground. These investigation methods may be
supplemented by regional geological studies and geophysical tests where justified by the
scale and importance of the project, or the complexity of the ground conditions.

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ADVANCES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILDING MATERIALS

ADVANCES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILDING MATERIALS

The paper summarizes innovative methods adopted in Lingnan architecture which has expe-
rienced shifts from simplicity to exquisiteness, from formal implicitness to space construction, from simple

technology to green integration and also from aesthetic monotonousness to harmonious diversity; besides, the
paper points out some restrictions to Lingnan architectural thoughts, including overstress on practices and
neglect of theories, loss of cultural characters, and disconnection of talent inheritance; finally some solutions
are brought up for the future development of Lingnan architectural creation, including predictive protection for
Lingnan architectural works and reestablishment of academic traditions and a scientific platform.

With practical and innovative characters, modern

Lingnan architects brought up the architectural con-
cept of integrating modern architectures with regional

cultures quite early. Focusing on Lingnan culture,
they established the unique Lingnan architectural
school and have made enormous achievements. They
combine regional climates, cultures, and techniques,

develop green techniques for ventilation, thermal insu-
lation and moisture protection, and advocate design

concepts like “integrating western and Chinese cul-
tures” as well as “three views and two characteristics”.

A large number of boutique buildings have been cre-
ated since the development of Lingnan architecture

concept in the 1950s. Representative works include
White Swan Hotel in Guangzhou, which attracted
wide attention in China when it was built in the early
years, some national gold-medal-winning works like
the Museum of the Tomb of the Nanyue King, as
well as recent influential buildings like the extension

project for Nanjing Massacre Memorial Hall.

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Blueprint Reading Construction Drawings for the Building Trades

Blueprint Reading Construction Drawings for the Building Trades

In the construction industry the term blueprint generally refers to a composite of several plans, such as
the foundation plan, the floor plan, elevations, sections, mechanical plans and details, etc., that are assembled
into an organized set of drawings to transmit as much information about a project as can be
placed on paper in one- or two-dimensional views. The completed set of drawings represents a pictorial
description of a construction project prepared by the architect/designer and/or engineering consultant.
Blueprint reading is therefore basically finding and interpreting the information placed on prints. The
information is displayed in the form of lines, notes, symbols, and schedules. At first glance, there is a
welter of information that can appear intimidating. This innovative textbook clearly explains how blueprints
and construction drawings are used to implement the construction process. It offers a comprehensive
overview of construction drawing basics and covers standard construction sequence, including site
work, foundations, structural systems, and interior work and finishes. A typical set of blueprints for a
building project usually includes a number of drawing types in order to see the project to completion.
Users of blueprints must be able to interpret the information on the drawings and must also be able to
communicate that information to others.

This manual covers and explains the use of lines, dimensions, schedules, specifications, symbols,
code requirements, construction drawing types, and methods of drawing organization, including CADD.
Comprehensive in its coverage, this book provides updated information to reflect the most recent developments
in the construction industry, enabling readers to further improve their communication skills when
dealing with the technical information found in blueprint documents. This book introduces concepts essential
to a basic, introductory understanding of residential and light construction, while providing handson
experience in reading architectural working drawings. It is intended to serve as a valuable textbook
and reference manual for building trade professionals as well as students with a career or interest in architectural
drawing/design, residential design, construction, and contracting, and also those who are required
to read and interpret information found in blueprint documents.

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HANDBOOK OF WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

HANDBOOK OF WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

We may organize water treatment technologies into three general areas: Physical
Methods, Chemical Methods, and Energy Intensive Methods. Physical methods of
wastewater treatment represent a body of technologies that we refer largely to as
solid-liquid separations techniques, of which filtration plays a dominant role.
Filtration technology can be broken into two general categories - conventional and
non-conventional. This technology is an integral component of drinking water and
wastewater treatment applications. It is, however, but one unit process within a
modern water treatment plant scheme, whereby there are a multitude of equipment
and technology options to select from depending upon the ultimate goals of
treatment. To understand the role of filtration, it is important to make distinctions
not only with the other technologies employed in the cleaning and purification of
industrial and municipal waters, but also with the objectives of different unit
processes.

Chemical methods of treatment rely upon the chemical interactions of the
contaminants we wish to remove from water, and the application of chemicals that
either aid in the separation of contaminants from water, or assist in the destruction
or neutralization of harmful effects associated with contaminants. Chemical
treatment methods are applied both as stand-alone technologies, and as an integral
part of the treatment process with physical methods.
Among the energy intensive technologies, thermal methods have a dual role in
water treatment applications. They can be applied as a means of sterilization, thus
providing high quality drinking water, and/or these technologies can be applied to
the processing of the solid wastes or sludge, generated from water treatment
applications. In the latter cases, thermal methods can be applied in essentially the
same manner as they are applied to conditioning water, namely to sterilize sludge
contaminated with organic contaminants, and/or these technologies can be applied
to volume reduction.

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Geotechnical Engineering Principles and Practices of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

Geotechnical Engineering Principles and Practices of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

This book has the following objectives:
1. T o explain the fundamentals of the subject from theory to practice in a logical way
2. T o be comprehensive an d mee t th e requirements o f undergraduate students
3. T o serve as a foundation course for graduate students pursuing advanced knowledge in the
subject
There are 21 chapters i n this book. The first chapter trace s the historical background o f the
subject and the second deals with the formation and mineralogical composition o f soils. Chapter 3
covers th e inde x properties an d classification of soil. Chapters 4 and 5 explain soi l permeability ,
seepage, an d th e effec t o f water on stress conditions in soil . Stresses developed i n soil due t o
imposed surface loads , compressibility and consolidation characteristics , and shear strength
characteristics o f soil are dealt with in Chapters 6,7 , and 8 respectively. The first eight chapters
develop th e necessary tools for computing compressibility an d strength characteristics o f soils.
Chapter 9 deals with methods for obtainig soil samples in the field for laboratory tests and for

constructed on an outcrop of sound rock, no foundation is required. Hence, in contrast to the
building itself which satisfies specific needs, appeals to the aesthetic sense, and fills its
matters with pride, the foundations merely serve as a remedy for the deficiencies of whatever
whimsical nature has provided for the support of the structure at the site which has been
selected. On account of the fact that there is no glory attached to the foundations, and that
the sources of success or failures are hidden deep in the ground, building foundations have
always been treated as step children; and their acts of revenge for the lack of attention can be
very embarrassing.
The comments mad e b y Terzagh i ar e ver y significan t an d shoul d b e take n not e o f by al l
practicing Architects an d Engineers. Architects or Engineers who do not wish to make use of the
growing knowledge of foundation design are not rendering true service t o their profession. Sinc e
substructures are as important as superstructures, persons wh o are well qualified in the design of
substructures shoul d alway s b e consulted an d the old proverb tha t a 'stitc h i n time save s nine '
should always be kept in mind.

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Construction Materials 4th Edition

Construction Materials 4th Edition

The structure of materials can be described on
dimensional scales varying from the smallest, atomic
or molecular, through materials structural to the
largest, engineering. Figure 0.1 shows that there is
considerable overlap between these for the different
materials that we consider in this book.
The molecular level
This considers the material at the smallest scale, in
terms of atoms or molecules or aggregations of
molecules. It is very much the realm of materials
science, and a general introduction for all materials
is given in Part 1 of the book. The sizes of the
particles range from less than 10-10 to 10-2
m, clearly
an enormous range. Examples occurring in this book
include the crystal structure of metals, cellulose
molecules in timber, calcium silicate hydrates in hardened cement paste and the variety of polymers,
such as polyvinyl chloride, included in fibre
composites.

We conventionally think of a material as being either

a solid or a fluid. These states of matter are con-
veniently based on the response of the material to

an applied force. A solid will maintain its shape
under its own weight, and resist applied forces with
little deformation.1

An unconfined fluid will flow under
its own weight or applied force. Fluids can be divided

into liquids and gases; liquids are essentially incom-
pressible and maintain a fixed volume when placed

in a container, whereas gases are greatly compressible
and will also expand to fill the volume available.

Although these divisions of materials are often con-
venient, we must recognise that they are not distinct,

and some materials display mixed behaviour, such
as gels, which can vary from near solids to near
liquids.

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CONCRETE FOR UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES

CONCRETE FOR UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES

Underground projects such as tunnels, shafts, and caves almost always incorporate concrete ele-
ments. The most significant use of concrete underground is as a lining that provides initial and/

or final ground support and, if needed, protection from corrosive environments. Initial and final

linings may be cast-in-place (CIP) concrete, precast concrete segments, shotcrete, or combina-
tions thereof. CIP concrete uses forms into which the concrete is placed and allowed to set until

it attains a specified strength and the forms can be removed. Precast concrete segments are man-
ufactured at a segment manufacturing plant and installed in the tunnel behind tunnel boring

machines (TBMs). Shotcrete is transported, similar to CIP concrete, to the point of application
before being sprayed directly onto the tunnel surface using a spray nozzle without the need for
formwork.

All three applications of concrete raise construction issues underground that differ from con-
siderations aboveground. The biggest differences arise from the confined nature of underground

construction, distance from point of delivery to point of placement, and the atmosphere or envi-
ronment underground. These issues will recur again and again as we discuss in later chapters the

construction and specification considerations related to each of the concrete applications.

Different methods of construction require different applications of concrete, whether exca-
vating in rock or soft ground and whether using drill-and-blast or mechanical methods of excavation.

Combinations of CIP concrete, shotcrete, and precast concrete segments are applied in almost all
underground excavations in either primary or secondary linings or in one-pass lining systems.

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Fundamentals of Earthquake Engineering

Fundamentals of Earthquake Engineering

The aim of this book is to serve as an introduction to and an overview of the latest structural earthquake
engineering. The book deals with aspects of geology, engineering seismology and geotechnical
engineering that are of service to the earthquake structural engineering educator, practitioner and
researcher. It frames earthquake structural engineering within a framework of balance between ‘ Demand ’
and ‘ Supply ’ (requirements imposed on the system versus its available capacity for action and deformation
resistance).
In a system - integrated framework, referred to as ‘ From Source - to - Society ’ , where ‘ Source ’ describes
the focal mechanisms of earthquakes, and ‘ Society ’ describes the compendium of effects on complex
societal systems, this book presents information pertinent to the evaluation of actions and deformations
imposed by earthquakes on structural systems. It is therefore a ‘ Source - to - Structure ’ text.

Practising engineers with long and relatively modern experience in earthquake - resistant design in high -
seismicity regions will fi nd the book on the whole easy to read and rather basic. They may however
appreciate the presentation of fundamental response parameters and may fi nd their connection to the
structural and societal limit states refreshing and insightful. They may also benefi t from the modelling
notes of Chapter 4 , since use is made of concepts of fi nite element representation in a specifi cally
earthquake engineering context. Many experienced structural earthquake engineering practitioners will
fi nd Chapter 3 on input motion useful and practical. The chapter will aid them in selection of appropriate
characterization of ground shaking. The book as a whole, especially Chapters 3 and 4 is highly
recommended for practising engineers with limited or no experience in earthquake engineering.

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Testing of Concrete in Structures

Testing of Concrete in Structures

The principal aim of this book is to provide an overview of the subject for nonspecialist
engineers who are responsible for the planning of test programmes. The
scope is wide in order to cover comprehensively as many aspects as possible of
the testing of hardened concrete in structures. The tests, however, are treated in
sufficient depth to create a detailed awareness of procedures, scope and
limitations, and to enable meaningful discussions with specialists about specific
methods. Carefully selected references are also included for the benefit of those
who wish to study particular methods in greater detail. The information and data
contained in the book have been gathered from a wide variety of international
sources. In addition to established methods, new techniques which show potential
for future development are outlined, although in many cases the application of
these to concrete is still at an early stage and of limited practical value at present.

The engineer has complete and absolute authority as to whether concrete is
condemned or accepted. The problem of testing, and interpretation of the results,
will however be approached in a variety of ways—specifications, which will be
used as the basis for decisions, vary widely and in some cases may legally
empower the engineer to condemn concrete if the cubes fail, irrespective of the
condition or quality of the in-situ concrete.
Many factors can however vitiate cube results including variations due to failure to
observe the required standardized procedures for sampling, manufacture and curing
of the cubes. Further errors may also be introduced by the testing operative or
inaccuracies in the testing machine, although these should be checked by regular
comparative reference testing. Whilst testing of the in-situ concrete eliminates most of
these sources of error, specifications rarely mention in-situ strength and Codes of
Practice do not define the in-situ strength required.

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AutoCAD 2016 Beginning and Intermediate

AutoCAD 2016 Beginning and Intermediate

This is the most comprehensive book about AutoCAD 2016 – 2D drafting on the
market. It is divided into three major parts:
Essentials: from Chapter one to Chapter ten. It assumes that the reader has no
previous experience in AutoCAD; hence it starts from scratch. Chapter ten contains
three projects – one architectural, and two mechanical using both Imperial and metric
units.
Intermediate: from Chapter 11 to Chapter 18. It contains a deeper discussion on a
subject we touched on in the Essentials part, or a new advance feature.
Advanced: from Chapter 19 to Chapter 25. It discusses the most advanced features of
AutoCAD 2016.
If you don’t have any prior experience in AutoCAD this book is a perfect start, and
you can stop at the end of any part. But if you want to be a real power user of AutoCAD,
you should go through all the 25 chapters, solving all projects and practices.
This book is also a good source to prepare for the AutoCAD Certified Professional
exam.

The chapters are divided as follows:
Chapter (1) covers AutoCAD basics along with the interface
Chapter (2) covers AutoCAD techniques to draw with accuracy
Chapters (3 & 4) cover all modifying commands
Chapter (5) covers the AutoCAD method of organizing the drawing using layers and
inquiry commands
Chapter (6) covers the methods of creating and editing blocks, and inserting and
editing hatches
Chapter (7) covers AutoCAD methods of writing text
Chapter (8) covers how to create and edit dimensions in AutoCAD
Chapter (9) covers how to plot your drawing
Chapter (10) three projects, one architectural and two mechanical, covering both
metric and imperial units
Chapter (11) covers the creation of more 2D objects
Chapters (12 & 13) cover advanced practices and techniques
Chapter (14) covers Block tools and Block Editing
Chapter (15) covers the creation of Text Style and Table Styles along with Formulas
in tables
Chapter (16) covers the creation of Dimension Style & Multileader style plus adding
multileaders
Chapter (17) covers the creation of Plot styles, the meaning of Annotative, and DWF
creation
Chapter (18) covers how to create a template file and customize AutoCAD interface

Chapter (19) covers Parametric Constraints
Chapter (20) covers Dynamic Blocks
Chapter (21) covers Block Attributes
Chapter (22) covers External Reference
Chapter (23) covers Sheets Sets
Chapter (24) covers CAD Standards and advanced layer commands
Chapter (25) covers Drawing Review

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Structural Analysis A Unified Classical and Matrix

Structural Analysis A Unified Classical and Matrix

This comprehensive textbook, now in its sixth edition, combines classical and matrix-based methods of structural analysis and develops them concurrently. New solved examples and problems have been added, giving over 140 worked examples and more than 400 problems with answers. The introductory chapter on structural analysis modelling gives a good grounding to the beginner, showing how structures can be modelled as beams, plane or space frames and trusses, plane grids or assemblages of finite element. Idealization of loads, anticipated deformations, deflected shapes and bending moment diagrams are presented. Readers are also shown how to idealize real three-dimensional structures into simplified models that can be analyzed with little or no calculation, or with more involved calculations using computers.

Dynamic analysis, essential for structures subject to seismic ground motion, is further developed in this edition and in a code-neutral manner. The topic of structural reliability analysis is discussed in a new chapter. Translated into six languages, this textbook is of considerable international renown, and is widely recommended by many civil and structural engineering lecturers to their students because of its clear and thorough style and content.

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Soil Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications

Soil Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications

Soil Mechanics Fundamentals is written with the intention of providing a very

basic yet essential concept of soil mechanics to students and engineers who are learn-
ing the fundamentals of soil mechanics for the first time. This book is meant mainly

for college students who have completed key engineering science courses such as
basic calculus, physics, chemistry, statistics, mechanics of solids, and engineering
materials and are ready to enter into one of the specialty areas of civil, architectural,

and geotechnical engineering. This book is intended to provide a thorough, funda-
mental knowledge of soil mechanics in a simple and yet comprehensive way, based

on the students’ knowledge of the basic engineering sciences. Special emphasis is
placed on giving the reader an understanding of what soil is, how it behaves, why it
behaves that way, and the engineering significance of such behavior.

Soil Mechanics Fundamentals is written with the intention of providing a very

basic yet essential concept of soil mechanics to students and engineers who are learn-
ing the fundamentals of soil mechanics for the first time. This book is meant mainly

for college students who have completed key engineering science courses such as
basic calculus, physics, chemistry, statistics, mechanics of solids, and engineering
materials and are ready to enter into one of the specialty areas of civil, architectural,

and geotechnical engineering. This book is intended to provide a thorough, funda-
mental knowledge of soil mechanics in a simple and yet comprehensive way, based

on the students’ knowledge of the basic engineering sciences. Special emphasis is
placed on giving the reader an understanding of what soil is, how it behaves, why it
behaves that way, and the engineering significance of such behavior.

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Examples in Structural Analysis Second Edition

Examples in Structural Analysis Second Edition

The design of structures, of which analysis is an integral part, is frequently undertaken
using computer software. This can only be done safely and effectively if those undertaking
the design fully understand the concepts, principles and assumptions on which the
computer software is based. It is vitally important therefore that design engineers develop
this knowledge and understanding by studying and using hand-methods of analysis based
on the same concepts and principles, e.g. equilibrium, energy theorems, elastic,
elasto-plastic and plastic behaviour and mathematical modelling.
In addition to providing a mechanism for developing knowledge and understanding,
hand-methods also provide a useful tool for readily obtaining approximate solutions during
preliminary design and an independent check on the answers obtained from computer
analyses.

The methods explained and illustrated in this text, whilst not exhaustive, include those
most widely used in typical design offices, e.g. method-of-sections/joint resolution/unit
load/McCaulay’s method/moment distribution/plastic analysis etc.
In Chapter 7 a résumé is given of the direct stiffness method; the technique used in
developing most computer software analysis packages. The examples and problems in this
case have been restricted and used to illustrate the processes undertaken when using
matrix analysis; this is not regarded as a hand-method of analysis.

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Engineering Construction Specifications

Engineering Construction Specifications

There are two major areas of designed construction:

(1) Building (architectural) construction, whose design is performed and su-
pervised by architects. This type of construction is sometimes referred to as

vertical construction.
(2) Engineered construction, which this book is concerned with, includes the
construction of bridges, highways, tunnels, dams, pipelines, airfields, rapid

transit facilities, and other types of construction that utilize the designs of en-
gineers. This type of construction is generally referred to as heavy construction.

When a construction contract is signed, the Specifications become the rule
book that governs performance of the Work and controls the official relations
between the Contractor, Owner, and Engineer. This book has been prepared for
both the practicing engineer and the student of engineering.

Specifications enabled the Engineer to control and handle other situations such

as unanticipated subsurface conditions; an uncooperative contractor; and ques-
tionable work which had to be uncovered for reexamination. In addition to

benefitting the student and the specification writer, material presented in this
book will be found useful by the project engineer, the Designer, the Owner's

site representative, the construction Contractor, and the construction claims law-
yer.

It has been said that over 50 percent of the construction claims that occur,
are caused by Drawings and Specifications that are unclear, ambiguous, or
contradictory. When these claims wind up in court and there are questions
concerning the intent of the Contract, the court will most likely tum to the
Specifications rather than to the Drawings. It is much easier for judges and juries
to interpret Specifications which are the written word, than it is to comprehend
a technical drawing.

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Mechanics of soil and Foundations

Mechanics of soil and Foundations

The use of engineering soils and rocks in construction is older than history and no other
materials, except timber, were used until about 200 years ago when an iron bridge was
built by Abraham Darby in Coalbrookdale. Soils and rocks are still one of the most
important construction materials used either in their natural state in foundations or
excavations or recompacted in dams and embankments.
Engineering soils are mostly just broken up rock, which is sometimes decomposed
into clay, so they are simply collections of particles. Dry sand will pour like water but it
will form a cone, and you can make a sandcastle and measure its compressive strength
as you would a concrete cylinder. Clay behaves more like plasticine or butter. If the
clay has a high water content it squashes like warm butter, but if it has a low water
content it is brittle like cold butter and it will fracture and crack. The mechanics that
govern the stability of a small excavation or a small slope and the bearing capacity of
boots in soft mud are exactly the same as for large excavations and foundations.

In the ground soils are usually saturated so the void spaces between the grains are
filled with water. Rocks are really strongly cemented soils but they are often cracked
and jointed so they are like soil in which the grains fit very closely together. Natural
soils and rocks appear in other disciplines such as agriculture and mining, but in these
cases their biological and chemical properties are more important than their mechanical
properties. Soils are granular materials and principles of soil mechanics are relevant to
storage and transportation of other granular materials such as mineral ores and grain.
Figure 1.1 illustrates a range of geotechnical structures. Except for the foundations,
the retaining walls and the tunnel lining all are made from natural geological materials.

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FUNDAMENTAL BUILDING MATERIALS

FUNDAMENTAL BUILDING MATERIALS

Anyone involved in a responsible role in building needs a very
broad understanding of a wide variety of materials, their potential and
deficiencies in use. The aim of this book is to provide this fundamental
understanding as a starting point.
Many formal courses in architecture and building teach building
construction as a major subject and refer to the products used with little
background information regarding these, their manufacture, raw materials
and peculiarities.
When local buildings used local products, which were basically few,
easily identified and understood by local tradesmen, this was a tolerable
situation. Present-day conditions in industrialised communities are very
different.
Materials of exceptional qualities have often been transported long
distances for special projects, but it was not until the 19th and 20th
centuries that modern transport made this commonplace for modest
houses as well as major monuments.

As a result of this, the variety of materials available in cities and many
industrialised regions has increased dramatically. Whereas stone, brick,
timber, mortar, plaster, terra cotta and slate were the primary materials
two hundred years ago, the range commonly available today, even under
those general classifications, is far wider than ever before. With the rise of
the steel, cement, aluminium, glass and chemical industries, comparative
newcomers as major building component manufacturers, the traditionally
restricted range has exploded.
To help readers extend their knowledge and to relate the material
characteristics to further studies of its uses, references are given to many
documents from recognised Australian authorities and some overseas
publications. Trade publications referred to often have local counterparts
in other countries.

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